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IRVING'S 

CATECHISM 

OF 
BEING A 

FAMILIAR INTRODUCTION 

TO THAT 

INTERESTING SCIENCE. 

WITH AN APPENDIX, CONT.UNING MANY 

S»ftt ^'i^Uf ^K^ leasing €%pxmt\\U. 

WITH ENGRAVED ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIFTH AMERICAN EDITION. REVISED AND DIPROVED, 

By M. J. KERNEY, A.M. 

Aidhor of Oompendium of Ancient and Modem History, First Clas, 



*/ 



BooTc of History, Catechism of the History of the United 
States, Columbian Arithmetic, d-c. <£c. (£c. 



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/I 5 ' ^tiaptcti to tf)e 2Ese of c^r^ools in t^e ©m'teXi ,^tatc5. ^rl 

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BALTIMORE: ' 

PRINTED & PUBLISHED BY J. MURPHY & CO. 

178 MARKET STREET, 
PITTSBURG. ..GEORGE QUIGLEY. 

Sold by Boolcsellers generally throughout the United States. 

7 1854. 



Entered according to the Act of Congress, in the year 1854, by 

JOHN MURPHY & CO. 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of Maryland. 



^'V 



PREFACE. 



The long established reputation of Irying's Cate- 
chisms precludes the necessity of adding any com- 
"ments on their merits. The very extensive circula- 
tion which they have had, not only in England, but 
also in this country, is the best proof of their utility. 
The plan of his works is the very best that could be 
' adopted. The catechetical form of instruction is 
now admitted, by the most experienced teachers, to 
be the best adapted to the nature and capacity of 
youth ;— a system by which children will acquire a 
knowledge of a science in less time than by any 
other. 

The present number, on Chemistry, will be found 
to possess peculiar merits. It lays open to the mind 
of the learner, all the most interesting and important 
portions of the science ; and though, originally de- 
signed for the young, it will prove a valuable com- 
pendium, which the more advanced in years may 
read with pleasure and profit. 

The present edition has been carefully revised, 
and corrected. It has been replenished with all the 
improvements, which modern discoveries have added 
to the science. The improvements, it is hoped, will 
add much to the merits of the work, and render it 
still more deserving of that liberal patronage which 
it has already received. 

1^^ 5 



EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE. 



A. Wollaston's Cryophorus. 

B. Is a rain-guage correctly graduated; and is generally 
adapted to an evaporating apparatus. 

C. A glass retort, which may be made of various sizes, ac- 
cording to the purpose for which they may be wanted. 

D. A bolthead for digesting tinctures ; for which purpose it 
is placed with the bulbous end in a sand bath. 

E. A Crucible, which should be of different sizes for the con- 
venience of different chemical experiments. 

F. Is a vessel for separating oils and other fluids. 

(x. Is a glass alembic, and should be made to contain from 
half a pint to three quarts. 

H. Is Davy's glass apparatus, for the analysis of earths, by 
the disengagement of gas. 

I. Is Pepys's improved ball blow-pipe. 

K. Is a complete apparatus for distillation : a is Welter's 
safety tube, to be adapted to retorts or receivers; 6 is a 
lamp-furnace with brass pillar and stand, sliding rings, 
and fountain-lamp ; c shows the form of a retort, which 
may be made of glass, earthen-ware, or porcelain ; d is a 
glass receiver for holding the products of distillation ; e 
is a cushion, on which the last described apparatus is placed 
to prevent it from breaking ; / is a metallic reflector for 
showing Pictet's experiments oa radiant heat; g is a port- 
able Argand*s lamp for chemical purposes ; A is a glass 
evaporating dish ; i is a glass spirit-lamp. 

L. Is a table furnace ; k is a. door in the cover, through 
which the fuel (charcoal) is to be introdu<jed ; I an open- 
ing which serves as a chimney when the top is taken off 
and a sand pot is to be used : or it will admit the neck of 
a retort, for the purpose of distilling with the naked fire ; 
m, n, two apertures opposite to each other, through which 
an iron, earthen, or other tube might be passed, in order 
to demonstrate the decomposition of water, and for otb^ 
operations which require a similar arrangement : o the 
door of the ash-pit. 

H. A differential thermometer, which is attached to the 
metallic reflector, 
6 



CONTENTS. 



CHAP. 

I. General Principles 9 

II. Atmospheric Air 12 

III. Caloric 15 

IV. Specific and Latent Caloric 17 

V. Of Water 19 

VI. Of Earths 21 

VII. Of Alkalies 27 

VIII. Of Acids 32 

IX. Of Salts 41 

X. Of Simple Combustibles U 

XL Of Metals 48 

XIL Of Oxides 55 

XIIL Of Combustion 57 

XrV. Of Attraction, Repulsion and Chemical Affinity.... 60 



APPENDIX. 

SIMPLE AND AMUSING EXPERIMENTS. 

Chap. I. — On Temperature. — To produce heat by Water ; 
— to freeze Water ;— Cold produced ; — Formation of Heat 
and Cold by Salts 6.3-64 

Chap. II. — On the Gases. — To produce Carbonic Acid, 
Oxygen, Nitric Acid, and Hydrogen Gases ; — Principles 
of the Air Balloon j — To produce an Explosion ; — Nitrous 

7 



O CONTENTS. 

and Muriatic Acid Gases produced; — to form a beautiful 
Flame: To procure Charcoal; — Crystallization 64-66 

Chap. III.— Formation of Salts. — Atmospheric Air neces- 
sary in Crystallization ; How to form common Table 
Salt; — To form another solid Crystallization mass... 67 

Chap. IV. — Colors. — Preparation for various ; — Formation 
of Milk White, Yellow, Orange, Carmine, Blood Red, 
Grass Green, Light Green, Ultramarine Blue, Dark Blue, 
Prussian Blue, Violet, Dark Brown. Pitch Black, Ink 
Black, Golden Ink, Red Ink, Blue Ink, Yellow Ink, 
Green Ink; — To produce Black Writing 68-73 

Chap. V. — Combustion and Detonation. — To produce Ful- 
minating Powder, and Ignition by cold Mixture 73-74 

Chap. VI. — Phosphoric Experiments. — Phosphoric Writ- 
ing ; — To produce the appearance of Fire ; — Flashes of 
of Fire from Water; — the Luminous Phial 74-75 

Chap. VIL — Metals. — To procure Sulphate and Muriate of 
Silver ; — Metallic Vegetation; — Tree of Marsand of Diana; 
—an Artificial Volcano;— Silver figures on Silk 75-79 

Chap. VIII. — Sympathetic Inks.— Yellow, Blue, and 
Green Ink ; — Silver and Jet-Black Letters ; — Letters of a 
Blue Color ; — Landscape ; — Gilding ; — Plating 79-83 

Colors for Painting on Velvet 84-85 



A 



CHAPTER I. 

General Principles. 



Q. What is Chemistry ? 

A. Chemistry is the science which teaches us how 
to ascertain the nature and properties of bodies, 
and to explain the intimate action of all natural 
substances on one another. 

Q. By what means is this science principally ac- 
quired ? 

A. The methods, by which the knowledge of 
chemistry is acquired, are analysis and synthesis, 

Q. What do you mean by analysis ? 

A. Analysis signifies the separation, or decompo- 
sition of the constituent parts of a compound sub- 
stance. 

Q. What is to be understood by the term syn- 
thesis ? 

9 



10 CATECHISM OF 

A. By the term synthesis is meant the formation 
or composition of a compound body, by the artifi- 
cial reunion of its constituent principles. 

Q. What do you mean by decomposition ? 

A. By decomposition is meant the art of dividing 
a body into its simple elements. 

Q, What kind of facts does chemistry contain? 

A. Chemistry contains a detail of those facts 
which are founded on observation and experiment. 

Q. Of what importance is the science of chemis- 
try? 

A. From its connection with the operations of 
nature and the existence of man, chemistry is of 
great interest, and highly worthy of accurate study. 

Q. What are the advantages arising from this 
science ? 

A. Chemistry discovers the causes of many im- 
portant phenomena; it enables us to reason con- 
cerning those properties of bodies which most im- 
mediately afiect us, and to predict their alterations; 
and it develops sublime views of the order and 
harmony of the different parts of our system. 

Q, What are the different states of natural bodies ? 

A. The different states of natural bodies may be 
divided into four classes; namely, solid, liquid, 
aeriform, and imponderable. 

Q. What is meant by a solid body ? 

A. Solidity is that property in bodies by which 
their parts firmly cohere. 

Q. What do you mean by liquid substances ? 

A. By liquid substances are meant those, the 
parts of which do not firmly cohere, but readily 



CHEMISTRY. 11 

yield to impression ; and which also assume^ when 
in small masses, a spherical form, being incapable 
of being compressed into a less compass by 
mechanical force. 

Q. What do you call aeriform substances ? 

A. All elastic fluids, generally called vapors and 
gases, belong to the aeriform class. 

Q. What are impondemble bodies ? 

A. They are only four in number, namely, light, 
caloric, electricity, and magnetism : they are also 
occasionally denominated etherial substances. 

Q. Why is the air termed a fluid ? 

A. The air is called a fluid, because light sub- 
stances float in it, and it flows like a liquid body. 

Q. Why do some substances sink, and others 
swim in the same fluid? 

A. Bodies which sink in a fluid are heavier than 
that fluid, and those which swim are lighter ; as 
for instance, in water, a body heavier than the 
same bulk, must fall to the bottom. 

Q. How do you express the relative weight of 
bodies ? 

A. The relative weight of bodies is called by the 
name of specific gravity. 

Q, What is meant by specific gravity of bodies ? 

A, When any body is larger, and takes up more 
space than another of the same weight, the former, 
we say, is specifically lighter than the other, and 
the latter specifically heavier. 

Q. How is the difference in the specific gravity 
of bodies denoted ? 

A. The specific gravity of bodies is denoted by 



X 



12 CATECHISM OF 

comparing it with the weight of pure water, in 
decimal figures, always considering water as 1-00. 
Thus the specific weight of iron is 7-65-, or more 
than seven and a half times heavier than water; 
— that is, a cubic inch of iron would require more 
than seven and a half inches of water to balance it. 



CHAPTER II. 

A tmosjplier ic A li\ 



Q. What do you observe of atmospheric air ? 

A. Our atmosphere is not, as was formerly sup- 
posed, a simple fluid, but in reality composed of 
two distinct substances, termed oxygen gas and 
nitrogen gas, in the proportion of 20 of the former 
and 80 of the latter. 

Q. Is the atmosphere composed of nothing more 
than oxygen and nitrogen ? 

A. Besides the above-mentioned bodies, the at- 
mosphere contains a small portion of another gase- 
ous fluid, termed carbonic acid ; also a large por- 
tion of water, and a variety of substances which 
are subject to evaporation. 

Q. What are the characteristic properties of at- 
mospheric air ? 

A. The characteristic properties of atmospheric 
air are gravity, elasticity, dilatability, and fluidity. 

Q. What is meant by the elasticity of the air ? 



CHEMISTRY. 13 

A. By the elasticity of atuiospbcric air, we mean, 
that when compressed, it will recover its former 
shape, when the pressure is removed. 

Q. What do you mean by the dilatability of the 
atmosphere ? 

A. The dilatability of the air is the capacity of 
being rarified, so that with increased heat it re- 
quires an increased space. 

Q. What is the extent of the atmosphere? 

A. The atmosphere ascends 45 miles above the 
earth, but as the height increases it becomes 
gradually attenuated. 

0. What is the weight of the atmosphere ? 

A. A column of air of the height of tiie atmo- 
sphere, one foot square, weighs about 2160 pounds, 
or about 15 pounds on every square inch. 

Q. What are the advantages of the atmosphere ? 

A. For the support of both animal and vegetable 
life, atmospheric air is indispensably necessary ; 
it is also requisite in combustion ; it conveys sound, 
and those minute particles of odorous bodies which 
excite smell ; and it enables birds to move with 
ease and quickness. 

Q. Are there any other advantages arising from 
the atmosphere ? 

A. Without atmospheric air there would be no 
cold water, for the waters would evaporate at a low 
temperature ; and the arteries of all animals, with 
the corresponding vessels in plants, would become 
too distended for the continuance of life. 

Q. How is water secured to us by means of atmo- 
spheric air ? 

2 



14 CATECHISM OF 

A. The pressure of the atmosphere upon the 
water confines it down, and prevents the heat of 
the sun from turning it into vapor. 

Q. What is meant by gas ? 

A. Gas is a substance rendered aeriform by heat; 
and so termed to distinguish it from those aeriform 
substances which, when no longer under the influ- 
ence of heat, return to a solid or fluid state. 

Q. What are the properties of oxygen gas ? 

A. Oxygen gas supports combustion, heat, and 
life. 

Q. What have you to observe of the properties 
of nitrogen gas ? 

A. The qualities of nitrogen are generally oppo- 
site to those of oxygen : it will not support com- 
bustion ; it will immediately destroy life and ex- 
tinguish light; it will not burn, and is lighter than 
atmospheric air. 

Q. What is meant by caloric ? 

A. The name given by chemists to fire or heat, 
is caloric ; and a large portion is combined with at- 
mospheric air. 

Q. How do clothes retain the heat of the body ? 

A. In this climate the temperature of the atmo- 
sphere is inferior to that of the body ; consequently, 
clothes are necessary to prevent the heat of the 
body, which has been separated from the air by 
the lungs, from suddenly escaping. 



CHEMISTRY. • 15 

CHAPTER III. 

Of Caloric. 

Q. What have you to say on the subject of 
heat? 

A. We acquire the sensation of heat from sub- 
stances that are warmer than our bodies. 

Q. What term has been given by philosophers to 
heat ? 

A. To prevent perplexity and confusion, in phi- 
losophical discussions, it was determined to adopt 
the word caloi^icj denoting that quality or principle 
which produces the sensation of heat, as distin- 
guished from the sensation itself. 

Q. Of what use is caloric ? 

A Caloric is indispensable to human life; by 
fire food is prepared, metals are dissolved, and the 
necessary forms and combinations given to all pro- 
ductions, y 

Q. How is caloric produced ? 

A. Caloric is produced by six different methods, 
namely : from combustion, by the sun's rays, by 
friction, by percussion, by the mixture of sub- 
stances, and by electricity and galvanism. 

Q What is the principal source of caloric ? 

A. The sun, the principal, and it is probable, the 
only original source of caloric, supplies the earth, 
and enabjes it to support vegetable and animal 
nature. 



16 CATECHISM OF 

Q, In what manner does combustion furnisli 
caloric ? 

A. A decomposition of the oxygen gas of the 
atmosphere takes place by combustion ; and caloric, 
one of its component parts, obtains freedom. 

Q. How does percussion produce caloric ? 

A, Percussion produces heat by the compression 
of the particles of the body; and by that means, 
forces out a portion of its latent caloric. 

Q. How does friction produce caloric ? 

A. It has not been accounted for how friction 
produces caloric, unless we suppose it to be a suc- 
cession of percussions. 

Q. Do electricity and galvanism produce great 
heat ? 

A. Yes, by means of the electrical battery^ or of 
the galvanic apparatus, a very great degree of heat 
may be produced. 

T. Describe the production of heat by means of 
mixture. 

P. When caloric is produced by the mixture of 
substances, the cause is to be attributed to the fluid 
part takiug a more solid form. 

Q. Are there any distinctions in caloric ? 

A. In all bodies there exists two very distinct 
portions of caloric. 

Q. What are their peculiar distinctions? 

A. One is termed sensible heat, or free caloric ; 
and the other latent, or combined caloric. 

Q. What is meant by free caloric ? 

A. Free or sensible caloric is a portion of heat 
disengaged from other bodies. 



CHEMISTRY. 17 

CHAPTER IV. 

Specific and Latent Color id, 

Q. What do you mean by latent caloric ? 

A. By latent caloric is meant that portion of heat 
whicli occasions no sensible addition of temperature. 

Q. Have all bodies the same capacity for caloric ? 

A. Different bodies have very different capacities 
for caloric ; but the same bodies have uniformly, 
except they undergo a change, the same capacity. 

T. Give an example of this kind of change. 

P. When gaseous substances become liquid, or 
those which are liquid become solid, their capacity 
for caloric is, in a great degree, lost ] when solid 
bodies become liquid or gaseous, their capacity for 
caloric is increased. 

Q. In all substances is the same quality of latent 
caloric to be found? 

A. No; with different substances, caloric com- 
bines in very different proportions ; and thus we 
say that one body has a greater capacity for caloric 
than another. 

Q. What do you mean by specific caloric ? 

A. Specific caloric is that portion of caloric which 
is necessary to raise a body to any given temperature. 

Q. By what instrument is the temperature of 
bodies generally measured ? 

A. The instrument used for measuring the tem- 
perature of bodies is called the Thermometer. 

T. Describe the thermometer 
2* 



18 CATECHISM or 

P. The thermometer consists of a glass tube^ 

containing a small quantity of mercury^ with a 

small graduated plate attached to it : to preserve 

the metal from the pressure of atmospheric air, the 

' tube is sealed. 

Q. In what manner is the thermometer affected 
by the different temperatures ? 

A. The mercury is expanded by heat and rises 
in the tube, and is contracted by cold and descends; 
hence by the height at which the mercury stands 
in the tube, we are informed of the temperature. 

Q. What do you observe of the effects of caloric ? 

A. Caloric increases the bulk of the substances 
with which it unites, and render's them specifically 
lighter than they were before. In some cases it 
promotes the union of substances, and in others, 
serves to separate bodies when united. It is also 
capable of converting all solid bodies into fluids. 

Q. Have bodies, in general, a great chemical 
affinity for caloric ? 

A. The affinity for caloric is one of the weakest, 
as appears from the ease with which warm bodies 
part with their caloric to those of lower temperature. 

Q. Is this fact universal ? 

A. It is a law of nature, that heated bodies com- 
municate a portion of their free caloric. 

T. Describe this law of nature. 

P. If the temperature of the air be reduced 
TdcIow 32*^, water imparts gradually its superabun- 
dant caloric, until being deprived of that amount 
which is necessary to retain it in fluidity, it is con- 
verted into ice. 



CHEMISTRY. 19 

CHAPTER V. 

Of Water. 

Q. What is the composition of water ? 

A. Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen. 

Q, Of what proportion of hydrogen and oxygen 
is water composed ? 

A. Water is composed of two parts of hydrogen, 
and one of oxygen, by volume ; and one of hydro- 
gen and eight of oxygen by weight. 

Q. What are the different states in which we find 
water ? 

A. Water is found in four states, viz : solid or 
ice ; liquid, to which the term water is commonly 
applied ; vapor or steam ; and united with other 
substances. 

Q. What do you consider the most simple state 
of water ? 

A. The simplest state of water is ice, for in that 
it has least caloric. 

Q. What is vapor, and what are its chief pro- 
perties ? 

A. Yapor is essentially water ; but, owing to the 
considerable quantity of caloric with which it is 
united, it takes the form of gas ; vapor can sup- 
port enormous weights ; and is useful in raising 
minerals, even water, from great depths. 

Q. At what degree of temperature will water 
freeze ? 

A. At 32 degrees of temperature. 



20 CATECHISM OF 

Q. At what temperature will it boil ? 

A, At the temperature of 212 degrees. 

Q. What is the weight of a cubic foot of water ? 

A. About 1000 avoirdupois ounces. 

Q. By what means do you know that water is a 
compound substance ? 

A. Water has been decomposed by various 
means, and the proportion of its different parts 
accurately ascertained. *^ 

Q. By what particular means is water decom- 
posed? 

A. Water may be decomposed by means of 
electricity and galvanism, and by all living vege- 
tables. 

Q, What general account can you then give of 
oxygen ? 

A, Oxygen is a constituent part of water, and 
of air; and in the latter it is that element to which 
it owes the power of maintaining combustion 
and life. 

Q, What further have you to observe of hydro- 
gen? \ \ 

A. Hydrogen, besides its constituting a part of 
water, has the property of burning with vital air ; 
and when in the state of ga3, is the lightest of all 
ponderable things. 

Q, Do you observe any thing else peculiar to 
hydrogen gas ? 

A. From the great lightness of hydrogen gas, 
it has been used for the inflation of air balloons, 
which enables persons to traverse the clouds, and 



CHEMISTRY. 21 

forms one of the most curious, if not the most 
useful examples of science applied to the arts. 

Q. How many times lighter is hydrogen than 
atmospheric air ? 

A. About 14 times lighter. 

Q. What is the specific gravity of water ? 

A. A wine pint measure of water weighs about 
1 pound. It is 825 times heavier than atmo- 
spheric air. 

Q. What are the chief advantages derived from 
water ? 

A. Water is an essential constituent in the 
organization of all living bodies; and, as it is 
continually expended during the process of life, 
that waste must be also continually supplied ; this 
supply being of absolute necessity, it is not left 
to chance, or even reason, but forms the object of 
imperious appetite. 



CHAPTER YI. 
0/ Earths. 



Q. What are Earths ? 

A. Earths are such substances as are not ductile, 
are mostly indissoluble in water or oil, and preserve 
their constitution in a strong heat. 

Q. What are the different earths ? 

A. The earths are nine, namely, silex, alumina, 
glucina, zirconia, yttria, magnesia, barytes, stron- 



22 CATECHISM OF 

tites, and lime : the last four are termed alkaline 
earths; the others, metallic. 

Q. What are the properties peculiar to earths t 

A. Earths are all dry, insipid, and incombusti- 
ble bodies, and have little or no taste. 

Q, What is Silex ? 

A. Silex, silica or siliceous earth , is the princi- 
pal constituent of a very great number of the 
compound earths and stones, forming the immense 
mass of the solid nucleus x)f the globe. Its speci- 
fic gravity is 2*65, or more than two and a half 
times heavier than water. 

Q. In what is silex found ? 

A, Silex is the basis of almost all the scintil- 
lating stones ; such as flint, rock, crystal, quartz, 
agate, calcedony, jasper, &c. 

Q. What have you to observe of silex in its pure 
state ? 

A. Silex when perfectly pure, exists in the form 
of a white powder, which is insipid and inodorous; 
it cuts glass, and scratches or wears away metals. 

Q. What are the chief uses of silex ? 

A. Silex, in the state of gravel, is used, from 
its durability, for the formation of roads, in the 
composition of earthen-ware, porcelain, cements, 
glass, and every description of vitreous articles. 

Q. How does silex form glass ? 

A. When in a state of extreme division, silex is 
soluble in alkalies ; and when fused with them 
forms glass. 

Q. How is silex obtained ? 

A, Silex may be obtained pure from flints, by 



CHEMISTRY. 23 

exposing tliem in a crucible to a red heat, and 
immediately plunging them into cold water, by 
which means they become brittle and are easily 
reduced to a powder. 

Q. What is Alumina ? 

A. Alumina, or pure clay, is a kind of earth 
which derives its name from a salt called alum. 

Q. What are the properties of alumina ? 

A, Alumina is white, soft, and insipid, adheres 
to the tongue, and causes a sense of dryness in 
the mouth ; and when moistened with water, 
forms a tenacious, ductile kind of paste. Its 
specific gravity is 2. 

Q. What are the uses of alumina ? 

A. Aluminous earth is used both by the dyer 
and calico-printer, in combination with acetic acid, 
fixing red and other colors upon calico. 

Q. Is alumina of no other use ? 

A. Alumina is also used in potteries, from its 
tenacity, aptitude for moulding, and hardening in 
the fire, for making earthen-ware, porcelain, &c. 

Q. What have you to observe of stone-ware ? 

A. Stone-ware is principally composed of alumina 
and silica ; but a small portion of old pottery is 
generally introduced into its composition. 

Q. What is the difference between this and com- 
mon earthen-ware ? 

A. The difference between stone-ware and 
earthen-ware consists in burning and glazing; 
stone-ware suffering a gTeater degree of heat, and 
being glazed with muriate of soda (common salt) 
instead of oxide of lead. 



24 CATECHISM OF 

Q. Wliat is Glucina ? 

A, Glucina is an earth which was discovered ia 
the diamond of Peni^ and is composed of silex, 
argil^ lime, and oxide of iron. 

Q. What are the properties of glucina ? 

A. Glucina is white, light, and soft to the touch, 
insipid, adheres to the tongue, and is fusible by fire. 

Q. What are the uses of glucina ? 

A. It is not yet known to what purposes glucina 
may by applied; but from the sweetness of its 
taste, we believe that nature, which forms nothing 
without its uses, has endowed this earth with pro- 
perties which will prove at some future time of 
great importance to animal economy. 

Q. What is Zirconia ? 

A. Zirconia is an earth which was discovered in 
a kind of hyacinth, in the Island of Ceylon ; but 
the stone from which it is obtained has been since 
obtained in France, Spain, and other parts of 
Europe. 

Q. What are the properties of zirconia ? 

A. Zirconia has a white color, is exceedingly 
heavy, and rough to the the touch, like silex; has 
neither taste nor odor, and is insoluble in water ; 
but forms with it like a jelly. 

Q. Where is Yttria obtained ? 

A. This earth was found in a fossil, at Ytterby, 
near Roslagen, in Sweden. 

Q. How is it distinguished ? 

A. When separated from the fossil, where it is 
found, yttria is in the form of a fine, white, insipid 



CHEMISTRY. 25 

power, resembling glucina ; but with this differ- 
ence, that it is not soluble in fixed alkalies. 

Q. What do you observe of Magnesia ? 

A. Magnesia is a very soft, white, light earthy 
with little taste or smell, and is insoluble in water : 
it is not found pure in nature, but is obtained by 
decomposition. 

Q. What are the uses of magnesia ? 

A. Pure as well as sulphate and carbonate of 
magnesia, are used much in medicine ; the two 
latter as purgatives, and the former as a most 
effectual antidote against mineral poisons. 

Q. How is magnesia obtained ? 

A. Magnesia is usually produced by precipitating 
it from sulphate of magnesia by means of an 
alkali. 

Q. What is Barytes ? 

A. Barytes is an earth generally known by the 
name of terra jponderosa.] or ponderous earth : it 
is chiefly found in England. 

Q. What are the properties of Barytes ? 

A. When pure, barytes is of a grayish white 
color, and, like alkalies, changes vegetable blues 
to a green, is very pungent and caustic to the 
taste, and has the property of uniting oil with 
water. 

Q. What are its uses ? 

A. Barytes forms the most useful chemical tests, 
whether in a pure state, dissolved in water, or 
combined with acids. 

Q. What do you observe of Strontites ? 

A. Strontites was discovered in a mineral brought 
3 



26 CATECHISM OF 

from a lead-mine of Strontian, in Argjleshire : 
the mineral is a carbonate of strontites^ and has 
been found in very small quantities^ in other 
countries. 

Q. What properties does strontites possess ? 

A. When separated from its acid, strontites is 
considered to be a pure earth ; and like barytes, 
soluble in water, of a grayish white color ; taste 
acrid and alkaline, but not poisonous. 

Q. What do you observe of the uses of stron- 
tites ? 

A. Strontites has not hitherto been employed for 
any useful purpose. 

Q, What is Lime? 

A. Lime, or calcareous earths, is a substance 
obtained by decomposing calcareous matters by 
the action of fire, which deprives them of their 
acid. 

Q. What are the properties of lime ? 

A. Lime is of a white color, and of a very hot 
caustic taste; with the assi^ance of acids, it 
forms peculiar salts, which is the best proof of 
the identity of this, or any other earth. 

Q, In what state is lime found ? 

A. In nature lime is never found pure, but 
always in a state of combination ; commonly with 
an acid ; but most frequently of all with carbonic 
acid, as in marble, limestone, chalk, &c. 

Q. What have you to observe of the uses of lime ? 

A. Lime, when combined with acids, may be 
applied to various useful purposes ; when in its 
pure state, it is used for mortar in building houses; 



CHEMISTRY. 27 

by farmers for manure, tanners, soap-boilers, sugar 
manufacturers, and others; also in medicine. 

Q, Describe the uses of lime in soap manufac- 
tories ? 

A. With alkali, lime is mixed, in order to de- 
prive it of carbonic acid, rendering it what is called 
caustic, and by this means enabling it to combine 
with oil; which is converted into soap. 



CHAPTER YII. 
Of Alkalies. 



Q. What is an Alkali ? 

A. An Alkali is a substance of an acrid taste, and 
has the property of changing the blue juices of 
vegetables to a green, and the yellow to a brown ; 
and of causing oils to mix with water. 

Q, What other peculiar properties do you observe 
of the alkalies ? 

A. Alkalies are incombustible, soluble in water, 
form various salts by being combined with acids, 
and act as very powerful caustics, when applied to 
the flesh of animals. 

Q. What number of alkalies are there ? 

A, There are three; two of which have been 
iQim^di fixed alkalies, the other volatile alkali. 

Q. What are the fixed alkalies? 

A. Potash and Soda. 

Q. Why are they termed fixed alkalies ? 



28 CHATECHISM OP 

A, Potasli and soda are called fixed alkalies, 
because they endure great heat without being 
volatilized; at a high temperature; however, they 
dissipate in vapor. 

Q, Of what are these alkalies composed ? 

A. Until very recently, the fixed alkalies were 
considered simple substances, no one having suc- 
ceeded in decomposing them ; but it is now ascer- 
tained that they are compounds. 

Q. What historical account is given of the dis- 
covery of these bodies ? 

A. The Gauls and Germans of antiquity were 
acquainted with potash ; and the Greeks and Jews 
with soda, which had, with them, the name of nitre. 

Q. How is potash obtained? 

A. If any vegetable substance be burned in the 
open air, and the ashes repeatedly washed with 
water, till it passes tasteless, and if this liquid be 
evaporated to dryness, the substance which remains 
is potash. 

Q, How is soda procured ? 

A. Soda, like potash, is obtained by lixiviation 
from the ashes of burnt plants; but only from 
those which grow upon the sea-shores ; the variety 
of which, employed for this purpose, is very con- 
siderable. 

Q. Is soda obtained by any other means ? 

A. Soda, combined with carbonic acid, is found 
in great abundance in the natron beds of Egypt, 
and in the East Indies. 

Q. By what particular properties are these two 
alkalies distinguished ? 



CHEMISTRY. 29 

A. Most qualities in the fixed alkalies are very 
similar; but they may be distinguished from the 
different salts which they form, when in combina- 
tions with acids, soda being not so deliquescent as 
potash. 

I Q, What have you to observe of the uses of these 
I alkalies ? 

I A, Fixed alkalies, which are the bases of different 
I salts, are of considerable service in medicine and 
I surgery, and in the arts in general. 
j Q. In what manner are alkalies employed in the 
i arts ? 

A, Alkalies are used by dyers, soap-boilers, glass- 
blowers, color-makers, and other manufacturers. 
Q. "Why are fixed alkalies used in forming colors ? 
A. Without fixed alkalies many colors in this 
country could not possibly be manufactured; as 
Prussian blue. Potter's blue, and French and 
mineral greens. 

Q. What other benefits are derived from those 
alkalies ? 

A. The alkalies are used in making alum, bleach- 
ing linen, scouring wool, and many other necessary 
processes, too numerous to mention. 

Q. By what naeans are alkalies purified for the 
use of the chemist ? 

A. Soda or potash having had quick-lime applied 
to free it from carbonic acid, is lixiviated in fit 
vessels, that a solution may be obtained without 
any mixture. 

Q, Are fixed alkalies ever used when combined 
with carbonic acid ? 

3* 



30 CATECHISM OF 

A, Potash and soda receive from carbonic acid 
the property of crystallizing readily, which also 
makes them mild and applicable to processes in 
which caustic alkali would be highly improper; 
thus, carbonate of potash is used medicinally, and 
carbonate of soda for the purpose of washing, &c. 

Q. What chemical name is given to the volatile 
alkali^ 

A. The volatile alkali is termed ammonia. 

Q. "What do you observe of the properties of 
ammonia ? 

A. When combined with water, or any other 
body, ammonia exists in a gaseous state, and is so 
extremely volatile, that it exhales at all known 
temperatures. It is lighter than atmospheric air 
in the proportion of 6 to 10. 

Q. Being a gaseous substance, how can it be 
employed in the arts ? 

A. Ammonia having an affinity for water, readi- 
ly combines with it, and forms liquid ammonia ; 
in which condition it is commonly used. 

Q. Of what is ammonia composed ? 

A. Ammonia is composed of nitrogen and 
hydrogen, in the proportion by weight of four 
parts of the former with one of the latter ; and 
by measure three of hydrogen and one of nitrogen. 

Q, Is ammonia capable of decomposition ? 

A, This alkali may be decomposed by electricity ; 
also by oxygen gas, with the assistance of heat ; 
in which case nitrous acid and water will be the 
result. 

Q. By what means is ammonia procured ? 



CHEMISTRY. 31 

A. Ammonia may be procured by mixing equal 
quantities of muriate of ammonia and lime^ sepa- 
rately reduced to powder ; wlien put into a retort, 
tbe beat of a lamp should be applied^ and the 
gas received ; also all animal and vegetable sub- 
stances, when in a state of putrefaction, will 
yield ammonia. 

Q. Are there no other means to procure this 
alkali? 

A. Ammonia is generally procured in this coun- 
try by a dry distillation of animal substances, 
such as bones and horns. 

Q. For what purpose is ammonia used ? 

A. The liquid ammonia is used for various pur- 
poses in manufactories, in medicine, and is a very 
valuable re-agent to t£e chemist ; and when in 
combination with carbonic acid, it takes a concrete 
form of a beautiful white color, and is sold in the 
shops under the name of volatile salts. 

Q. By what process does ammonia form muriate 
of ammonia ? 

A, By combining muriatic acid with ammonia, 
muriate of ammonia is formed ; it is commonly 
termed sal-ammoniac. 

Q, What are the uses of sal-ammoniac ? 

A. It is used in medicine and many manufacto- 
ries ; especially by dyers, to impart a brightness 
to certain colors ; by braziers too, tinplate-workers, 
and others. 



32 CATECHISM OP 

CHAPTER VIII. 
^ Of Acids. 

Q. What is meant by an Acid ? 

A. By acids are meant, in common discourse, 
those substances which produce that sensation on' 
the tongue termed sour : with acids, however, are 
classed several substances without this character- 
istic ; but possessed of some of the other proper- 
ties of acids. 

Q. What do you observe of the properties of 
acids ? 

A. Acids have the property of changing the blue, 
green, and purple juices* of vegetables to red; 
and of combining with alkalies, earths, or metallic 
oxides, so as to compose those compounds termed 
salts. 

Q. From what do acids originate ? 

A. The greater part of the acids originate from 
the combination of oxygen with certain substances, 
which is termed the acidifying principle ; but 
there are some substances that possess acid pro- 
perties, which contain no oxygen. 

Q. How many classes of acids are there ? 

A, Formerly the classes of acids were three ; but 
the most scientific way of dividing them, is into 
two only : acids which have not been decomposed, 
or have been resolved into two principles, are of 
the first class ; those which consist of more than 
two are of the second. 



CHEMISTRY. 33 

Q. What acids compose the first class ? 

A. The acids formiDg the first class are the 
sulphuric and sulphurous ] muriatic and oxygen- 
ized muriatic, nitric, carbonic, phosphoric, and 
phosphorus, fluoric, boracic, arsenic, and arsenous, 
tungstic, molybdic, and molybdous, telluric, and 
chromic acids. 

Q. What are the acids forming the second class ? 

A. The acids forming the second class, are the 
acetic, oxalic, tartaric, citric, malic, lattic, gallic, 
mucous, benzoic, succinic, camphoric, suberic, 
laccic, prussic, sebacic, uric, amniotic, and the 
fluoboric acids. 

Q. What is Sidptiuric acid ? 

A. Sulphuric acid is composed of sulphur and 
oxygen, and is commonly called oil of vitriol. 

Q. How is it obtained ? 

A. Sulphuric acid is procured by burning sul- 
phur in contact with oxygen ; by this means the 
sulphur unites with the oxygen, and is acidified. 

Q. If sulphuric acid is only sulphur and oxygen, 
how do you account for its fluidity ? 

A. Sulphuric acid, on being formed, is in a 
gaseous state ; therefore the manufacturers con- 
dense it by means of water, and thus is formed 
the sulphuric acid of commerce, which is always 
fluid. 

Q. What are the properties of sulphuric acid ? 

A. It is a ponderous and corrosive acid ; and 
when combined with the alkalies and earths forms 
the salts called sulphates. 

Q, What is the Sulphurous acid ? 



34 CATECHISM OF 

A. Sulphurous acid, like the sulphuric, is a 
combination of sulphur and oxygen, but with a 
greater proportion of sulphur than the latter. 

Q. What are the properties of sulphurous acid ? 

A. Sulphurous acid in the gaseous state is pos- 
sessed of a strong suffocating smell. When ab- 
sorbed by water it forms liquid sulphurous acid. 
It is capable of combining with various bases, 
and forms the salts called sidpJittes. 

Q. How is Muriatic acid obtained ? 

A. Muriatic acid, by means of sulphuric acid, 
is distilled from sea-salt ; and being collected in 
proper receivers, is condensed in water. 

Q, What are the properties of muriatic acid ? 

A. Muriatic acid in a gaseous state, like air, is 
invisible : with water it forms the liquid muriatic 
acid, which preserves the smell of the gas, and 
exhales white fumes when exposed to the atmo- 
sphere. It combines with various bases and forms 
the salts called muriates. 

Q, What is Oxymuriatic acid ? 

A, Oxymuriatic acid, or chlorine, is a simple 
substance : it exists both in the gaseous state and 
combined with water, but it is in the latter form 
that it is generally used by artists. 

Q. What have you to remark of the properties 
of oxymuriatic acid ? 

A. Oxymuriatic acid gas is of a suffocating na- 
ture; and it cannot, without great injury, be 
breathed; it however maintains combustion; it dis- 
charges vegetable colors, burns all the metals, and is 
the only acid capable of dissolving gold and platina. 



CHEMISTRY. * 35 

With various bases it forms salts called mu- 
riates, 

Q. What is the Nitric acid ? 

A. Nitric acid is compounded of oxygen and 
nitrogen, in the proportion by weight of about 26 
parts of the latter to 74 of the former, and is one 
of the constituent parts of salt-petre. 

Q. By what means is nitric acid obtained ? 

A. Nitric acid may be procured by distilling two 
parts of nitric with one of sulphuric acid, in a 
glass retort : while the fluid is collected in re- 
ceivers, the acid containing nitrous acid, is at first 
of a deep red color, but on the subsequent applica- 
tion of heat, it becomes transparent and colorless. 

Q. What properties has nitric acid ? 

A. When in a pure state, nitric acid is clear 
and colorless ; the smell is pungent, and the taste 
extremely acrid ; it has a great affinity for water, 
and can oxydize most metals with various bases : 
it forms the salts termed nitrates. 

Q. What is Nitrous acid ? 

A, Nitrous acid is improperly so called, being, 
in fact, nitric acid impregnated with some portions 
of nitrous acid gas. 

T. Describe the properties of nitrous acid. • 

P. In its properties, nitrous acid is something 
similar to nitric acid; but, according to the 
quantity of nitrous gas and of water with which it 
is combined, the color varies. 

Q. What do you mean by Carhonic acid? 

A. Carbonic acid is composed of carbon and 
oxygen, and was formerly called fixed air, as it is 



36 CATECHISM or 

intima'elj conibincd viith. ccrtahi substances, as 
chalk, lime-stoiic, and magnesia. 

Q. What are the properties of carbonic acid ? 

A. In its gaseous form, carbonic acid is invisible, 
and unfit for respiration or combustion : it com- 
bines with alkalies, earths, and metallic oxides; 
and thus forms those salts termed carbonates. 

Q, What do you observe of Phosphoric acid ? 

A. Phosphoric acid is compounded of oxygen, 
and the inflammable substance phosphorus. 

Q. How is this acid obtained ? 

A. The only mode of procuring phosphoric acid 
formerly, was by burning phosphorus in oxygen 
gas ; but now it is known that the acid is a consti- 
tuent part of bones, and a much more economical 
way of obtaining it is from them. 

Q. What do you observe of this acid ? 

A. Phosphoric acid is soluble in water; the solu- 
tion being colorless, and of a strong acid taste; 
it combines with earthy, alkaline, and metallic 
bases; composing that variety of salts called j^Aos- 
jphates. 

Q. What is Phosphorous acid ? 

A. Phosphorous acid contains a minuter portion 
of oxygen than phosphoric acid, and is obtained 
by the slow combustion of phosphorus ; which, 
when heated, burns very rapidly, and produces 
phosphoric acid. 

Q. What do you observe of the properties of 
phosphorous acid ? 

A. Phosphorous acid is liquid, but of great density, 
its taste is acid : and its smell, when heated, similar 



CHEMISTRY. 37 

to that of garlic. The salts formed with it are 
called phosphitesT 

Q. What is Fluoric acid ? 

A. Fluoric acid is obtained from the fluate of 
lime : it is also found in cryolite^ a rare mineral in 
West Greenland : the topaz, too, contains fluoric 
acid, though in a less proportion. 

Q. What are the properties of fluoric acid ? 

A. It is readily absorbed by water, and forms 
liquid fluoric acid. In combination with the alka- 
lies and earths, it forms the salts called y?!^a?^es. 

Q. For what purpose is fluoric acid used ? 

A. Fluoric acid has been employed for etching 
on glass, and for destroying the polish upon glass, 
so as to render it nearly opaque. 

Q. What do you observe of Fluoboric acid ? 

A. It is an acid that is neither interesting nor 
useful, and is a compound of the boracic and fluoric 
acids. 

Q. What is Boracic acid ? 

A. Boracic acid is an acid obtained from a sub- 
stance known by the name of borax : its most 
peculiar property is that of giving a green color to 
all burning bodies. With the alkalies and earths 
it forms the salts called borates. 

Q. What do you mean by Arsenic acid ? 

A. Arsenic acid, composed of arsenic and oxygen, 
is of a ponderous, thick mass, and poisonous in the 
highest degree. With different bases it forms the 
salts called arseniates. 

Q. What is Tungstic acid ? 

A. Tungstic acid, composed of tungsten and 

4 



38e CATECHISM OF 

oxygen, is a tasteless yellow powder, soluble in hot 
water ; and wlien united with ^rths, alkalies, or 
metals, forms tiingstates. 

Q. What is meant by Molybdic acid ? 

A. Molybdic acid is composed of oxygen and 
molybdenum, and is a pale yellow powder. When 
combined with some bases, the compounds are 
called molyhdates. 

Q, What do you observe of Chromic acid ? 

A. This acid is composed of oxygen and chro- 
mium, has a rough, metallic taste, and is chrystal- 
lizable. It also forms with the earths and alkalies 
various salts called chromates. 

Q, What is Acetic acid ? 

A. Acetic acid is chiefly procured from saccha- 
rine matters which have suffered a vinous fermenta- 
tion. 

Q, What are its properties ? 

A. This acid is a pleasant yellow liquor, known 
by the name of vinegar; but when distilled is 
quite colorless. With various bases it forms the 
salts called acetates. 

Q. What is Oxalic acid ? 

A. Oxalic acid, called also salt of sorrel^ and by 
some acid of sugar , is obtained by oxygen from 
sugar. It is composed of oxygen, hydrogen and 
carbon. In combinations with the earths, &c., it 
forms the salts called oxalites. 

Q. What is meant by Tartaric acid ? 

A. Tartaric acid is obtained from the tartar of 
commerce; it crystallizes, and is much used in 



CHEMISTRY. 39 

medicine for acute fevers, scurvy, and hemorrliages. 
The salts formed of it are called tartrates. 

Q. What do you observe of Citric acid ? 

A. Citric acid is a peculiar acid procured from 
lemons : it exists also in a disengaged state in 
fruits : it is very acid and soluble, and its crystal- 
lizations are beautiful. The salts formed with it 
are called citrates. 

Q. What is Malic acid ? 

A. This acid is produced from the juice of 
apples, gooseberries, barberries, &c., and is of an 
unpleasant sour taste, and incapable of crystal- 
lization. The salts formed with it are called 
malates. 

Q. What is lactic acid ? 

A. Lactic acid is procured from the milk which 
has lost the curd : it is of a yellowish color, and 
cannot be crystallized. The salts formed with it 
are called lactates. 

Q, What is meant by Grallic acid ? 

A. Gallic acid is a peculiar acid extracted from 
nutgalls, and possesses the property of precipi- 
tating iron, when dissolved in acids, of a blackish 
color. Its salts are called gallates. 

Q. What is Mucous acid ? 

A. Mucous acid, or as it has been termed, saccho- 
lactic acid, is obtained by nitric acid from sugar 
and milk, gum arabic, and other mucilaginous 
substances : it is a white gritty powder, and its 
taste is slightly acid. Its salts are called mucttes. 

Q. What do you mean by Benzoic acid ? 

A. Benzoic acid is obtained by boiling the resin 



40 CATECHISM OF 

benzoin in water : it is a light whitish powder, 
of a pleasant aromatic odor. It is used in medi- 
cine under the name of flowers of Benjamin. It 
forms the salts called henzoates. 

Q. What do you observe of Succinic acid ? 

A. Succinic acid exists in a solid form, and is 
prepared from amber. It salts are called succi- 
nates. 

Q. What do you mean by Camphoric acid ? 

A. Camphoric acid is obtained from camphor in 
white crystals, by means of nitric acid : its taste 
is acid and slightly bitter, with a smell similar to 
saffron. With salifiable bases it forms camphor- 
ates. 

Q. What is Suberic acid ? 

A, This acid is procured by means of nitric acid 
from cork : it has an acid taste, and is incapable 
of crystallization. Its salts are called suherates. 

Q. What is meant by Laccic acid ? 

A. Laccic acid is a peculiar acid, obtained from 
white lac : it is of a reddish color, and has a 
saline bitter taste. 

Q. What do you observe of Prussic acid ? 

A. Prussic acid is a colorless fluid ; it has a 
strong odor, and a sweetish but acrid taste. It is 
composed of hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon, and 
is obtained from blood, and other animal sub- 
stances : when combined with iron it forms what 
is called Prussian blue. 

Q. What is Sebacic acid ? 

A, This acid is obtained from tallow, in the 
form of a liquid; and has an acid, sharp, bitter 



CHEMISTRY. 41 

taste : when combined with nitric acid, it dis- 
solves gold ; when united with alkalies and earths 
it forms the salts called sehates. 

Q. What is Uric acid ? 

A. Uric or lithic acid, is procured from human 
urine, and has neither taste nor smell ] being 
capable, however, of turning vegetable blues red : 
it is composed of carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, and 
oxygen. 

Q. What do you observe of Amniotic acid ? 

A. This acid is obtained from the liquor of the 
amnios of the cow, is slightly acid, and reddens 
the tincture of litmus : it unites with the pure 
alkalies and forms neutral salts. 

Q. What have you to remark on the different 
uses of the acids ? 

A. Acids are indispensably necessary in arts 
and manufactures ; they are also used for culinary 
purposes, and for medicine. 



CHAPTER IX. 

Of Salts. 



Q. What do you mean by Salts ? 

A. Salts, or saline substances, are formed when 
an acid combines with an earth, alkali, or metallic 
oxide : this composition was formerly called neu- 
tral salts ; but those salts only are termed so now, 
that have neither an excess of acid or base. 
4* 



42 CATECHISM OF 

Q. What number of salts do you observe? 

A. The exact number of salts is not known, but 
they are supposed to amount to many hundreds. 

Q. How are the different salts distinguished ? 

A, Every salt has a double name ; one indicates 
its acid, the other its base : thus, in many hun- 
dred different salts their composition is instantly 
known by the appellation. 

T. Describe how this is effected. 

P. All substances composed of metallic oxides, 
earths, or alkalies with sulphuric acid, are termed 
sulphates ; with muriatic acid, muriates ; with 
nitric acid, nitrates ; with carbonic acid, carhon- 
ateSj &c. 

Q, What term is used for common salt? 

A. Common salt is called muriate of soda, from 
its being composed of soda and muriatic acid. 

Q. What is salt-petre called ? 

A, Salt-petre is called nitrate of potash, as its 
constituent parts are nitric acid and potash. 

Q. What term is used for chalk ? 

A. Chalk is termed carhonate of lime, being a 
compound of lime and carbonic acid. 

Q. If these bodies were formerly termed neutral 
salts, why is not the same name still applied to 
them ? 

A. No salt can be considered strictly neutral, 
that possesses a taste of either the acid or the 
base of which it is formed. • 

Q. Is this generally the case ? 

A There are some which have an excess of acid, 
as the supertartrate of potash, (cream of tartar,) 



CHEMISTRY. 43 

and the greater part of the metallic salts ; some 
have a greater proportion of base, as borax. 

Q. By what means are such salts distinguished ? 

A. If a salt is found to possess a superfluity of 
acid, the word supei' is applied to its name, as 
super-tartrate of potash ; if on the contrary, it 
contain an insufficiency of acid to saturate it, the 
word snh is applied, as sub-borate of soda. 

Q. How do you distinguish salts, of which the 
acids are not perfectly oxygenized ? 

A. All salts that are composed from acids termi- 
nating in ous, and in ite instead of ate^ as sulphite 
of lime OY phosphite of potash. 

Q. What are the changes to which the salts are 
subject ? 

A. Salts are subject to the following changes; 
(leliquescencey efflorescence, solubility, and fusi^ 
hilitij. 

Q. What do you mean by deliquescence ? 

A. There are some salts with such an affinity for 
water, that they absorb it from the atmosphere, 
and by that means become liquid or moist, which 
is termed deliquescence. 

Q. What is efflorescence ? 

A. When a salt has a less affinity for water than 
for atmosphere, it loses its water of crystalliza- 
tion, and becomes a powder. 

Q. What is solubility ? 

A. By solubility is meant the capacity that a salt 
has for uniting with water, and being contained 
in it in a state of solution. 



44 CATECHISM OF 

Q, What is fusibility ? 
A. Fusibility is the property of melting, on the 
application of great heat. 



CHAPTEU X. 

0/ Simple Combustibles. 

Q. What do you mean by a simple substance ? 

A. Those are termed simple substances which 
have never been either decomposed or artificially 
formed. 

T. Enumerate the simple substances. 

jP. The simple substances with which we are 
acquainted, are electricity, magnetism, caloric, 
light, chlorine, oxygen, nitrogen, iodine, the 
metals, and the simple combustibles, such as phos- 
phorus, sulphur, carbon, hydrogen, boron, and 
fluorine. 

Q. What is to be understood by simple combus- 
tibles ? 

A. When we have no proof of their being com- 
pounded, combustibles are termed simple ; whereas, 
wax, oil, tallow, and other combustible bodies, are 
composed of two or more ingredients. 

Q. What is Hydrogen ? 

A. Hydrogen is a simple substance, which from 
its property of burning with vital air, has been 
termed inflammable air; also, combined with 
oxygen it forms water. 



CHEMISTRY. 45 

Q. What do you mean by sulphurated hydrogen 
gas? 

A. This gas is transparent and colorless; it is 
inflammable, and has all the characters of an acid. 

Q. What is phosphuretted hydrogen gas ? 

A. If hydrogen gas be combined with phospho- 
rus, phosphuretted hydrogen gas will be obtained, 
which takes fire the instant that it comes in contact 
with atmospheric air. 

Q. How is Carburetted Hydrogen gas produced ? 

A. This gas is formed by carbon being dissolved 
in hydrogen : it is this gas which causes many 
dreadful accidents in mines and coal-pits; and 
which by the miners is termed jire'damp. 

Q. What are the chief uses of carburetted hydro- 
gen gas ? 

A. From its inflammability and brilliant flame, 
this gas has been used for lighting streets, shops, 
manufactories, and light-houses on the sea- coast ; 
and the rate at which it is procured is trifling com- 
pared with the expense of oil or tallow. 

Q, What is Sulphur ? 

A. The earth abounds with Sulphur, both pure 
and in a state of combination : it is of a light 
lemon color, very brittle, and when heated, emits 
a very disagreeable and unwholesome smell. Its 
specific gravity is 1*99. 

Q. What do you observe of Phosphorus ? 

A. Phosphorus is one of the most combustible 
substances known, and is of a yellowish color. 

Q. How is phosphorus obtained ? 

A. Phosphorus is a substance both animal and 



46 CATECHISM OF 

mineral^ and is obtained by decomposing the phos- 
pboric acid contained in bones. . 

Q. What else do you observe of phosphorus ? 

A, Phosphorus is so inflammable, that at a very 
low temperature it spontaneously takes fire, and 
burns rapidly with a brilliant white flame. It is a 
solid substance, and its specific gravity is nearly 
twice that of water. 

Q, What is Carbon ? 

A. Carbon, or clia^coalj is the black residue of 
vegetable substances, the volatile properties of 
which have been entirely dissipated by heat ; but 
pure carbon is known only in the diamond. 

Q. What compounds are obtained by means of 
carbon ? 

A. Various combinations are formed by means 
of carbon, from its uniting with oxygen, hydrogen, 
nitrogen, phosphorus, sulphur, and iron. 

T. Describe these compounds. 

P. With various portions of oxygen, carbon com- 
poses carbonic acid; with hydrogen and caloric, 
carburetted hydrogen gas, &c. 

Q. What is meant by Charcoal ? 

A. Charcoal, the most familiar combination of 
carbon, is the residuum of vegetable substances 
burnt in close vessels. 

Q. What is the use of charcoal ? 

A. Charcoal is greatly used in making gun- 
powder, for decomposing sulphuric salts; also in 
manufactures, and by chemists. 

Q, Is charcoal a simple or a compound substance? 

A, Common charcoal is a compound substance : 



CHEMISTRY. 47 

— it is an oxide of iron ; — it also contains hydro- 
gen, and a portion of alkaline salt and some earth. 

Q. What do you observe of pure carbon ? 

A, Carbon, when crystallized, is called diamond ; 
but its crystallization by art has never yet been 
effected. 

Q. Of what use is carbon in vegetables ? 

A. Carbon composes nearly the whole basis of 
vegetables, from a flower to a tree. 

Q. Does carbon enter into the composition of 
minerals ? 

A. We know only of its combination with iron. 

Q. What is formed when carbon combines with 
iroH ? 

A. In one proportion, cast iron is formed, in 
another steel — in another plumbago ; commonly 
called hlack-lead. 

Q. What is the proportion of carbon in cast iron ? 

A. Cast iron contains about one forty-fiflh of its 
weight in carbon. 

Q. What is the proportion of carbon in steel ? 

A. Steel contains about one part of carbon to two 
hundred parts of iron. 

Q. What is the proportion of carbon in plumbago^ 

A. Plumbago contains about nine parts of carbon 
to one of iron. 

Q, How is Carbonic acid generally obtained ? 

A. Carbonic acid is obtained from the decompo- 
sition of vegetables, from the surface of fermented 
liquors, and by pouring sulphuric acid upon chalk 
or marble. 



48 CATECHISM OF 

CHAPTEE XI. 

Of Metals, 

Q. How are metals distinguished ? 

A. Metals are distinguished by their specific 
gravity, opacity, and peculiar brilliancy. 

Q. How are they obtained ? 

A. Metals are dug out of the earthy but very 
seldom in a state of purity. - * 

Q. What number of metals are there. 

A. The number of metals is 42, which essen- 
tially differ from each other. 

T Give the names of some of them ? 

P. Platina, gol<i; silver, copper, iron, lead, tin, 
zinc, mercury, tellerium, antimony, bismuth, 
manganese, nickel, nickolinum, cobalt, uranium, 
titanium, columbium, chrome, molybdenum, tung- 
sten, arsenic, tantalium, cerium, palladium, rho- 
dium, iridium, and osmium. 

Q. What is Platina ? 

A. Platina is the hardest and heaviest of all 
metals, and is found in the North of Peru, and at 
Carthagena in South America; it is white and 
hard, of great tenacity and ductility, and is with 
difficulty reduced to fusion ; on which account it 
is sometimes used for chemical instruments. Its 
specific gravity is 21. 

Q, What is Gold ? 

A. Gold is a metal of a yellow color and great 
lustre : it is the most ductile and unchangeable 



CHEMISTRY. 49 

of all metals ; and is incapable of combustion by 
the ordinary action of fire, or by any other means, 
indeed, than galvanism, or exposure to oxygen and 
hydrogen. Its specific gravity is 19. 

Q. AVhere is gold obtained ? 

A, Gold is found in Africa, Hungary, Spain, 
France, and in North and South xlmerica. 

Q. What are the uses of gold ? 

A. Gold is chiefly used for plate, jewelry, and 
for current coin ; but for these purposes it is 
generally alloyed with a portion of silver or cop- 
per : it is also employed in various arts. 

Q. What are the peculiar properties of gold ? 

A. Gold, from its great ductility and tenacity, 
may be beat into leaves so thin, that it would take 
282,000 to make an inch in thickness. 

Q. What are the qualities of Silver ? 

A. Silver is of a white color, unalterable by fire, 
and very tenacious. Its specific gravity is 10-50. 

Q. Where is silver found ? 

A. Mexico, Bohemia, Transylvania, and many 
other countries, abound with silver mines. 

Q. What are the peculiar properties of silver ? 

A. Silver also, from its peculiar ductility and 
tenaciousness, may be beat into leaves of one hun- 
dred and sixty thousandth part of an inch thick, 
and drawn into wire a thousandth part of an inch. 

Q. What effect has oxygen upon silver ? 

A. Silver is not oxydized by atmospheric air, 
unless exposed to an intense heat; but the oxyde 
of silver may be obtained by dissolving the metal 



50 CATECaiSM OF 

in an acid, and precipitating it by means of lime- 
water, or an alkali. 

Q. What do you observe of the uses of silver ? 

A. Silver is principally used for ornamental 
work, current coin, and for forming domestic 
utensils ; and is generally alloyed with a portion 
of copper in order to harden it. 

Q. What is Copper ? 

A. Copper is a metal of a rose red color, very 
sonorous and ductile : it was first discovered in 
the Island of Cyprus, but is now abundantly found 
in different countries. Its specific gravity is 
8-90. 

Q. What Salts are there of copper ? 

A. Among the salts of copper are the sulphate 
of copper, acetate of copper, nitrate, muriate, 
and arseniate of copper, &c.; which are generally 
formed by art. 

Q, Are there no native salts of copper ? 

A. The native salts of copper are the carbonate, 
the arseniate, the muriate, the sulphate and the 
phosphate of copper. 

Q. What are the qualities of Iron ? 

A. Iron is a pale white color ; it is found very 
abundantly in nature, and is distinguished from 
every other metal by its magnetical properties. 
Its specific gravity is 7*78. 

Q. What is Steel ? 

A. Steel is iron combined with carbon, is of a 
light gray color, and susceptible of the most 
brilliant polish. 

Q. How do iron and carbon form steel ? 



CHEMISTRY. 51 

A. Bars of malleable iron and charcoal are placed 
in layers, in a close furnace, and a strong fire is 
applied for a week or ten days ; it is then drawn ^ 
out, and, when cold, beat with a hammer, or cast 
into small bars, forming what is called cast steel. 

Q. What properties has Lead ? 

A. Lead is of a light gray color ; it is the softest 
and least sonorous of metals, is fusible by gentle 
teat, and tarnishes on exposure to the atmospheric 
air. Its specific gravity is 11*35- 

Q. What are the characters of Tin ? 

A. Tin is of a brilliant light color, and one of 
the lightest of metals : it is obtained in great 
quantities from the mine in Cornwall, England. 
Its specific gravity is 7*30- 

Q, What are the qualities of Zinc ? 

A. Zinc, after iron, is the most common of 
metals j it is of a brilliant bluish white color ; 
and in its natural state is combined with oxygen 
and carbonic and sulphuric acid. 

Q. What is Mercury ? 

A. Mercury, or quicksilver, is a substance of 
the color of silver, and is the only metal that re- 
mains fluid at the ordinary temperature of the at- 
mosphere ; when reduced, however, to 40*^ Fahren- 
heit, it assuijies a solid form. Its specific gravity 
is 13-50, 

Q. What is Tellurium ? 

A. Tellurium is a metal of a white color, similar 
to tin, and is possessed of considerable metallic 
lustre. Its specific gravity is 6*10. 

Q. What qualities has Antimony ? 



52 CATECHISM OF 

A. Antimony is very brilliant ; its color is white, 
being intermediate between those of tin and silver ; 
and it is but rarely found native. Its specific 
gravity is 6-70. 

Q. What properties has Bismuth ? 

A. Bismuth is of a reddish white color; and is 
so brittle, that it may be reduced to a powder. Its 
specific gravity is 9*80. 

Q, What are the qualities of manganese ? 

A. Manganese is of a grayish color, very hard 
and brittle; and is the most combustible of all 
metals. Its specific gravity is 6-85. 

Q. What is Nickel ? 

A. Nickel, when free from heterogeneous sub- 
stances, is of a pale flesh color, is of a fine com- 
pact texture ; and when newly broken, has a strong 
lustre. Its specific gravity is 8-25. 

Q. What qualities has Nickolinum ? 

A, Nickolinum bears a resemblance to nickel 
from its magnetical powers; but, unlike nickel, it 
requires combustible bodies to dissolve it. 

^. What are the properties of Cobalt ? 

A. Cobalt, in its pure state, is of a steel gray 
color, inclining to red ; is obedient to the magnet, 
"^nd is very brittle ; with ease it may be reduced 
to a powder. Its specific gravity is 8. 

Q. What characters has Uranium ? 

A. Uranium is a mass of small metallic globules 
'adhering together, of a deep gray color on the out- 
side, and within of a pale brown; it is so soft that 
it may be scraped with a knife. Its specific gravity 
is 9. 



CHEMISTRY. 53 

Q, What is Titanium ? 

A. Titanium is of a red yellow crystalline texture, 
and very brittle ; it resembles copper, and pos- 
sesses much lustre; but tarnishes when exposed 
to the air. 

Q. What qualities has Columbium ? 

A. Columbium or tantalium is of a dark gray 
color ; incapable of being reduced by the most 
intense heat, but may be pulverized in a mortar 3 
even in that state, however, it cannot be affected 
by an acid. 

Q. What qualities does Chrome possess ? 

A. Chrome is a metal of a grayish color, very 
brittle, and capable of being crystalized at a high 
temperature. 

Q. What are the properties of Molybdenum ? 

A. Molybdenum is obtained from a mineral in 
Sweden ; it is of a silver like color, and very brittle. 
Its specific gravity is 7*40. 

Q, What is Tungsten ? 

A. Tungsten is of a steel gray color ; one of the 
hardest metals, but extremely brittle. Its specific 
gravity is 17-50. 

Q. What qualities has Arsenic ? 

A. Arsenic is of a lively bright color, very brittle, 
and is extremely poisonous. Its specific gravity 
is 8-35. 

Q. What are the properties of Tantalium ? 

A. Tantalium is of a grayish color, and may be 
distinguished from all other metals by its insolu- 
bility in acids, and its being acted upon by alkalies. 

Q. What is Cerium ? 

5^ 



54 CATECHISM OF 

A. Cerium is a metal obtained from a fossil found 
in Sweden^ named cerite; but the quantities hither- 
to discovered have been too small to admit of its 
properties being accurately determined. 

Q. What are the characters of Palladium ? 

A. Palladium in some measure resembles platina, 
but is of a duller color ; it possesses great mallea- 
bility^ and may be drawn into wire of great fineness. 
Its specific gravity is 11*50. 

Q. What properties has Rhodium ? 

A. Rhodium is a yellowish metal^ and in some 
degree resembles silver. It is as hard as iron, but 
much more brittle. 

Q. What qualities has Iridium ? 

A. Iridium is a white metal, resembling platina; 
it is very brittle and infusible, but may be dis- 
solved in muriatic acid. 

Q. What are the qualities of Osmium ? 

A. Osmium is a metal of a blue color, is with 
difficulty fusible by a great heat, and is insoluble 
in acids. 

Q. What is Potassium ? 

A. Potassium is an alkaline metal, perfectly white, 
has the brightness of silver, and possesses a greater 
affinity for oxygen than any other body. Its spe- 
cific gravity is 0*86. 

Q. What is Sodium ? 

A. Sodium, another alkaline metal, has similar 
properties to potassium ; is white and bright like 
silver, and very malleable. Its specific gravity is 
0-97. 



CHEMISTRY. 55 

CHAPTER XII. 

Of Oxides. 

Q. What is an Oxide ? 

A. An Oxide is a substance whose base is com- 
posed of less oxygen than is sufficient to convert 
it into an acid. 

Q. Of what substances are oxides composed ? 

A. Oxides are formed by a union of oxygen 
with animal, mineral, and vegetable productions. 

Q. By what means do oxygen and metals unite '' 

A. The chief cause of union is from the decom- 
position of acids and of water, or by access of 
atmospheric air. 

Q. Are metals ever exposed to the air for the 
purpose of converting them into oxides ? 

A. The common red lead, which is the true 
oxide of lead, is made by melting that metal in 
ovens so constructed as to have a free access of 
air. 

Q. TVhat metals become oxides by the decom- 
position of water ? 

A. Zinc, tin, iron, and manganese become 
oxydized by the decomposition of water. 

Q. What quantity of oxygen is requisite for the 
oxydizing of metals ? 

A. Metals become oxydized by different propor- 
tions of oxygen, according to the manner of effect- 
ing it, and the degree of force with which it retains 
oxygen. 



56 CATECHISM or 

Q. Are acids often necessary for the oxydizing 
of metals ? 

A. There are many examples of metals being 
oxydized by tlie agency of metals ; common white 
lead, for instance, is obtained by exposing sheet- 
lead to the fumes of acetic acid. 

Q. What do you observe of the properties of 
metallic oxides ? 

A. Metallic oxides are heavier than the metals 
from which they are produced, and in combination 
with different acids form metallic salts. 

Q. Is it possible to reduce metallic oxides ? 

A. Charcoal, on account of its affinity for oxygen, 
is frequently used for that purpose ; though, from 
the slight union of some metals with oxygen, light 
alone will effect it, by attracting the oxygen. 

Q. What is Carbonic oxide ? 

A. Carbonic oxide is obtained by heating char- 
coal with metallic oxides ; in which case it absorbs 
the oxygen and becomes a gas. 

Q. What are its properties ? 

A. Carbonic oxide, like most other gases, is 
invisible ; it is very offensive to the smell, and is 
highly combustible. 

Q. What is Nitrous oxide, and how is it obtained ? 

A. Nitrous oxide is composed of 63 parts of 
nitrogen and 37 parts of oxygen by weight; and 
is obtained by exposing crystals of the nitrate of 
ammonia to heat in a retort : the salt assumes its 
constituent parts, and the gas is evolved. 

Q. What are the properties of this gas ? 

A. Nitrous oxide, more than any other gas, re- 



CHEMISTRY. bT 

sembles atmospheric air ) it is respirable^ and so 
pure that the effects produced on people who have 
inhaled it, have been of the most pleasing and 
rapturous kind. 

Q, What is Nitric oxide, and how is it obtained 't 

A. Nitric oxide is composed of 47 parts of nitro- 
gen and 53 parts of oxygen, and is obtained by 
dissolving copper or mercury in nitric acid, and 
collecting the gas which rises from the solution. 

Q. What else do you observe of nitric oxide ? 

A. Nitric oxide can in some instances support 
combustion ; but, in none, life : it is heavier than 
atmospheric air; and, by mixing this gas and 
oxygen gas together, nitric acid is formed. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

Of Comhustion. 



Q. What do you mean by Combustion ? 

A. By combustion is meant a decomposition of 
the oxygen gas in such substances as are capable 
of being separated by burning, the base of the 
oxygen being absorbed, and its caloric escaping as 
sensible heat. 

Q, Can all substances be burned ? 

A. Only some substances are combustible ; others 
cannot be burned. 

Q. What are simple combustibles ? 

A. The simple combustibles, that is, such as 



58 CATECHISM OF 

have not been decomposed, are sulphur, hydrogen, 
phosphorus, carbon, boron, and the different 
metals. 

Q. What are compound combustibles ? 

A. Compound combustibles are formed by a union 
of two or more of the simple combustibles. 

Q. What is meant by the supporters of com- 
bustion ? 

A. The supporters of combustion are those sub- 
stances which are not themselves combustible; 
but without the presence of one of which, com- 
bustion cannot happen. 

Q. What are supporters of combustion ? 

A. The supporters of combustion are oxygen gas, 
chlorine gas, and iodine. 

Q. How is oxygen a supporter of combustion ? 

A. From its affinity for combustible substances, 
oxygen promotes combustion; for when bodies 
are burning, they absorb oxygen form the air, or 
from other subjects in contact with them. 

Q. How do you account for the heat which is 
observed during combustion ? 

A. The heat produced by combustion, arises from 
the decomposition of oxygen gas contained in the 
atmosphere ; for as the oxygen combines with the 
combustible, caloric is given out in the form of 
sensible heat in every direction. 

Q, During combustion, what does the light pro- 
ceed from ? 

A. The light and flame which appears during 
the combustion, is supposed by some to proceed 
from the decomposition of atmospheric air, and 



CHEMISTRY. 59 

by others as proceeding from the combustible 
body. 

Q. How is chlorine gas a supporter of combus- 
tion ? 

A. If tin, zinc, copper or iron filings be thrown 
into chlorine gas, they burn spontaneously, and 
what is produced from the combustion, is called 
a chloride. 

Q. In what manner is iodine a supporter of 
combustion ? 

A. If in the common temperature of the atmo- 
sphere, phosphorus comes in contact, with the 
crystals of iodine, heat will be evolved, but no 
light. 

Q. How do combustibles differ from each other ? 

A. Combustibles differ principally from each 
other, from the avidity they have for the absorp- 
tion of oxygen. 

Q. Is any part of bodies destroyed by combus- 
lion ? 

A. It is supposed that every particle of matter 
is indestructible, and that the process of combus- 
tion merely decomposes the body. 



■'-^^ 



CATECHISM OP 



CHAPTER XIV. 



Of Attraction^ RepuJsionj and Chemical 
Affinity. 

Q. What do you mean by attraction ? 

A. Attraction is tliat property of matter, by 
which its particles are made mutually to approach 
and unite to one another. 

Q. What are the most striking instances of 
attraction ? 

A. The most striking instances of attraction are 
that of all bodies to the centre of the earth, called 
attraction of gravitation ; magnetism, electricity, 
galvanism, and that of the planets toward one 
another. 

Q. How is attraction defined by chemists ? 

A. When the force of attraction operates between 
particles of the same body, it is termed attraction 
of cohesion ; but when between the particles of 
different bodies, it is termed attraction of comjposi' 
tioUj or chemical affinity. 

Q. What do you mean by attraction of cohe- 
sion? 

A. The particles of every body attract one 
another, so that they unite into one substance. 

Q. What is chemical affinity ? 

A. Attraction of composition, chemical affinity, 
or elective attraction, is the tendency of certain 
bodies to unite with others, and form one com,- 
pound. 



CHEMISTRY. 61 

Q. What do you observe of the laws of chemical 
attraction ? 

A. Chemical attraction must exist between parts 
of opposite and distinct substances, and is pro- 
portionable to the different force exerted in such 
substances. 

Q. What is meant by simple attraction ? 

A. Simple attraction is when two bodies unite 
by their mutual attraction. 

Q. What do you mean by compound affinity ? 

A. Compound affinity is the mutual action of 
two compound bodies, by which means they decom- 
pose each other, and produce other compounds. 

Q. What is disposing affinity ? 

A. Disposing affinity is when two bodies, which 
appear to have no tendency to unite, combine on 
the addition of another substance. 

Q. What benefit arises from a knowledge of at- 
tractions ? 

A. By a knowledge of the attraction which one 
body has for another, we are enabled to analyze 
the productions of nature. 

Q. What is meant by repulsion ? 

A. Repulsion is a certain power which all bodies 
possess, and which gives them a tendency to re- 
cede from each other. 

Q. What proofs are there of repulsion ? 

A. The existence of a force, that opposes the 
approach of bodies, is beyond a doubt ; but the 
cause is as unknown as that of attraction : the 
only kinds of repulsion, perceptible to the senses, 
are electricity and magnetism. 
6 



APPENDIX. 

Simple attir ^nutsinij (^^^pwimttits. 



CHAPTER I. 



ON TEMPERATURE. 



I. To produce Heat hy Water and Sulphuric 
Acid. 

Take two phials, and in one of them put a 
little sulphuric acid, and let the other be half 
filled with water ; grasp the phial containing the 
water, firmly in one hand, and with the other 
gradually pour a little of the sulphuric acid into 
it, and sufficient heat will be produced to boil an 
egg- 

II. To freeze Water in Summet\ 

Suspend with a string a glass tube^ having a 
bulb; fill the whole with water, and keep the 
bulb moist with pure sulphuric ether; and the 
water will in a short time, become ice. 

63 



64 APPENDIX. 

III. Cold produced. 

Take a bottle and put a little powdered muriate 
of ammonia^ and hold it fast, as in the first experi- 
ment, in one hand, and pour some cold water into 
it, when a degree of cold will be produced equal 
to that of ice or snow. 

IV. Heat hy the Formation of a Salt: 

Put a small thermometer in a glass vessel con- 
taining two ounces of soda, then add as much 
muriatic acid as will saturate the soda ; this will 
immediately produce heat, so that the mercury 
will rise or expand. 

y. Cold hy Formation of Salt. 

Place a small thermometer in a glass vessel, with 
about an ounce of the carbonate of soda, then add 
muriatic acid till the soda is saturated ; cold will 
be produced, so that the mercury will fall in the 
thermometer 



CHAPTER II. 

ON THE GASES. 



VI. To produce Carhonic Acid Gas, 

Put into a common bottle a small quantity of 
marble or chalk roughly powdered, and pour upon 



APPENDIX. 65 

it some sulphuric acid, diluted with two parts 
water; a great effervescence will take place, and 
carbonic gas will be evolved. 

VII. To produce Oxygen Gas. 

Put a small quantity of the black oxide of man- 
ganese into a retort, and pour on it some sulphuric 
acid ; apply heat, and you will attain oxygen gas. 

Vni. Nitric Acid Gas prodvA:ed. 

Put into a retort some nitrate of potash, (salt- 
petre,) pour upon it some sulphuric acid and 
apply the heat of a lamp, and nitric acid gas will 
then be disengaged. 

IX. Hydrogen Gas evolved. 

Put some iron filings or pieces of zinc into a 
bottle, pour on them some sulphuric acid mixed 
two parts with water, and hydrogen gas will be 
the produce. 

X. Principal of the Air Balloon. 

Fill with hydrogen gas a bladder having a stop- 
cock, and apply it to a tobacco-pipe ; having dip- 
ped the bowl of the pipe into a lather of soap, 
press the bladder, and bubbles of soap, containing 
hydrogen gas, will ascend, similar to an air bal- 
loon. 

6* 



66 APPENDIX. 

XI. To produce an Explosion, 

If a bladder, such as described in tbe preceding 
experiment, be filled with oxygen as well as Jiydro- 
gen, and the bubbles, as they ascend, be touched 
with lighted paper, they will explode with a loud 
noise. 

XII. Nitrous GiJiJs produced. 

If some small shreds of copper be put into a 
phial, and some diluted nitrous acid poured upon 
them, nitrous gas will be produced. 

XIII. To produce Muriatic Acid Gas. 

Pour some sulphuric oxid on some commoii iealt, 
and muriatic acid gas will be evolved. 

XIV. To form a heauii/ul Flame, 

If a bladder (furnished with a stop-cock) be filled 
mth hydrogen gas, on compressing it and apply ii% 
a lighted candle to the end of the pipe, a beautiful 
stream of flame will be seen issuing from it. 

XV. To procure Charcoal. 

Having put a little phosphorus into a crucible, 
cover it closely witli powdered ishalk till the cruci- 
ble is filled : invert another crucible, then apply fire 
till they are red hot : when the mixture is cold, 
charcoal will be found. 



APPENDIX. Vf 

CHAPTEK in. 

FORMATION" OF SALTS. 

XVI. Atmospheric Air necessary in Crystal- 
lization. 

Procure a two ounce phial, and put into it an 
ounce of Glauber's or Epsom salts, pour a little 
boiling water on them, and tie tbe moutb of the 
phial with a piece of moistened bladder, so as to 
exclude all air; when perfectly cold, the contents 
will have the appearance of cold water, but on 
puncturing the bladder the whole will become im- 
mediately crystallized, 

XVn. Hoic to form common Table Scclt. 

Take two ounces of soda, and saturate it with 
muriatic acid ; both of which are corrosive articles ; 
the compound substance produced will be the mild 
and useful common salt. 

XYIII. To form another solid crystalline mass. 

Take two wine-glasses, into one of them put a 
solution of carbonate of potash, and into the other 
a similar quantity of the solution of muriate of 
lime; mix the two tx)g't;ber, constantly stirring 
them, and a solid mass wT;] be obtained from the 
imxture. 



68 APPENDIX. 

CHAPTER IV. 

ON COLORS. 

A nuinber of very innocent and pleasing experi- 
ments upon colors, may be performed, by the 
following preparations. 

No.l. 

Dissolve a dram of the acetite of lead in i^ix 
ouDces of water, and filter the solution. 

No. 2. 

Dissolve an ounce and a half of the carbonate 
of potash in a similar quantity of water, and filter 
the solution. 

No. 3. 

Dissolve 10 grains of corrosive muriate of 
mercury in six ounces of water, and filter the solu- 
tion. 

No. 4. 

One ounce of sulphate of iron to be dissolved 
in six ounces of water, and filtered. 

No. 5. 

Take a similar solution, prepared as above, and 
add to it half an ounce of sulphuric acid. 



APPENDIX. 69 

No. 6. 

Mix half an ounce of sulphuric acid with six 
ounces of water. 

No. 7. 

Dissolve half a dram of crystallized acetite of 
copper in six ounces of water. 

No. 8. 
Concentrated quantity of liquid ammonia. 

No. 9. 
Sulphurous acid. 

No. 10. 
Some red-rose leaves infused in sulphurous acid. 

No. 11. 
Red cabbage leaves infused as above. 

No. 12. 

Digest half an ounce of bruised gall-nuts in 
12 ounces of water, filter the solution; and then 
add one dram of nitric acid. 

No. 13. 
Diluted solution of potash. 

No. 14. 
Dissolve half a dram of quicksilver in two 



70 APPEJ!*^DIX. 

drams of moderately strong nitric acid, mixing 
with tlie solution six ounces of water. 

When these colorless Fluids are mixed together, the following 
tints may he procured. 

XIX. To form Milk-iahite. 
Mix three parts of No. 1 with one of No. 2. 

XX. To make Yellow. 
Four parts of ^No. 14 with one of No, 2. 

XXI. To produce Orange. 

Four parts of No. 3 with one of No. 2, and the 
mixture will be orange. If No. 6 be added, the 
mixture returns to its former limpid state. 

XXII. To make Carmine. 

Mix a few drops of No. 6, with No. 10 ; and by 
adding No. 9 this color disappears. 

XXni. To form Blood-Red. 

A few drops of No. 6 with No. 11 ; it will be- 
bome colorless, on adding No. 9. 

XXIV. To produce Grass-Green. 

Three parts of No. 10 with one of No. 1 : on 
adding No. 6, the mixture becomes red ; a few 
drops of No. 9 restore it to a colorless liquid. 



APPENDIX. ft 

XXY. To make LiylU- Green, 
Three parts of No. 11 with one of No. 1. 

XXYI. To form Jjltra-niarine Blue. 

Mix three parts of No. 7 with one of No. 8 : 
which again becomes colorless by adding No. 6. 

XXVn. To make Dark Blue. 

Mix three parts of No. 11 with one of No. 2 ; 
which changes to a ruby-red^ on the addition of 
No. 6. 

XXVIII. To make Prussian Blue, 
Mix equal quantities of No. 5 and No. 13. 

XXIX. To make Violet. 
Mix equal quantities of No. 7 and No. 11. 

XXX. To for'in Dark Brown. 

To tincture of turmeric^ add two drops of solu- 
tion of potash, the original bright yellow color will 
be converted into a dark brown, but the color may 
be restored by applying a little colorless diluted 
acid. 

XXXI. To produee a colorless substance. 

Boil a small quantity of water, containing carbo- 
nate of iron in a state of solution, and add prussiate 
of potash; the mixture will have no color. 



72 APPENDIX. ^ 

XXXII. To form Pitch'Blach. 

Mix three parts of No. 11. with one of No 4. 

XXXIII. To make Ink Black. 

Mix three parts of No 12, with one of No 4, 

which is again rendered limpid by No. 6 ; and No. 

13 turns it blue. 

«^ 

XXXIV. To make Golden Ink. 

Take white gum arabic, and reduce it to an im- 
palpable powder in a morter, dissolve it in strong 
brandy, and add to it a little water : take some 
gold in a shell, and reduce it to powder, then 
moisten it with a gummy solution, and- stir it ; 
leave it for a night to dissolve the gold, dilute it 
with gum-water infused with a little saffron, then 
write with a common pen, and polish the writing 
with a piece of ivory, when the letters will be of 
a beautiful golden color. 

XXXV. Red Ink. 

Boil for a quarter of an hour two ounces of 
Brazil wood, with a pint of rain-water, and add 
to it a little alum, gum arable, and sugar candy. 

XXXVI. Blue Ink. 

Indigo and ceruse diluted with gum-water will 
form blue ink. 



APPENDIX. 73 

XXXVII. Yellow Ink, 

Dilute gamboge in gum-water, or saffron and 
yellow berries, (graine d' Avignon.) 

XXXVIII. Green Inh. 

Boil sap-green in water, with a little dissolved 
rock alum. 

XXXIX. To produce Black Writing. 

Write with the juice of onions, or lemon juice, 
and the writing will be invisible; but by holding 
it to the fire it will become black. 



CHAPTER V. 

COMBUSTION AND DETONATION. 

XL. To produce Fidminating Powder without 
danger. 

Mix six parts of nitrate of potash, and two of 
sulphur : rub them together in a warm mortar, 
the product will be what is commonly called ful- 
minating powder ; a small quantity of which, being 
put on the corner of a fire-shovel and held over 
the fire, gradually becomes black, and explodes 
with a loud denotating report. 
7 



74 APPENDIX. 

XLI. To produce Ignition hi/ cold Mixture. 

Put a little magnesia into a cup, and pour suffi- 
cient concentrated sulphuric acid upon it to coyer 
it ; in an instant sparks will be given out, and the 
whole will become ignited. 



CHAPTER VI. 

PHOSPHORIC EXPERIMENTS. 

XLII. Phosphoric Writing, 

If a small piece of phosphorus be placed in a 
quill, and any characters written with it on a wall, 
when dark, they will become beautifully luminous. 

XLIII. To produce the appeai^ance of Fire with- 
out danger. 

If the face or hands be rubbed with phosphu- 
retted ether, in a dark place, they will appear as 
though on fire, without danger or sensation of 
heat. 

XLXV. To make a Basin of Water appear on 
Fire. 

If a lump of sugar be wetted with phosphorized 
ether, and thrown into a basin of water, the whole 
of the surface will be illuminated, resembling the 
fiery appearance of the sea. 



APPENDIX. T6 

XLV. To prodiice flaahes of Fire fmm Water, 

To a glass of water add phosphate of lime ; in 
a short time, flashes of fire will dart from the sur- 
face, and end in ringlets of smoke, which will 
ascend in regular order. 



XLVI. To make a Luminous Phial to shoio the 
Hour in the Night. 

Put a piece of phosphorus into a phial, and fill 
it one-third with boiling olive oil, cork it tight : 
on the cork being removed, the light produced 
will be so strong as to show on a watch the hour 
of the nio;ht. 



CHAPTER VII. 

METALS. 

XLYII. To procure Sulphate of Silver, 

Take two glasses, each of them containing rain 
water, and put into one of them a single drop of 
sulphuric acid; and into the other put a little 
nitrate of silver, and no change will be discerni- 
ble ; but on mixing the two a precipitate will 
appear, which is sulphate of silver. 



76 APPENDIX. 

XLYIII. Muriate of Silver and Sulphate of 
Silver. 

Procure two glasses, and fill them with rain 
water as above, and into one put a couple of drops 
of muriatic acid, and into the other some nitrate 
of silver ; on mixing the two, a precipitate, con- 
sisting of muriate of silver and sulphate of silver, 
will be produced. 

METALLIC VEGETATION. 

XLIX. Leaden Metallic Tree. 

Dissolve in a quart of water, about an ounce of 
acetate of lead, and filter the solution ; if a piece 
of zinc be suspended in it by means of a piece of 
brass wire, a decomposition of the salt will imme- 
diately take place, and the lead will be at liberty, 
which will fix itself upon the wire, forming a 
metallic tree. 

L. Ai'hor Martis ; or Tree of Mars. 

Dissolve iron filings in spirits of nitre (aqua 
fortis) moderately; stir it till the acid is satu- 
rated; then pour gradually into the solution a 
solution of fixed alkali, commonly called oil of 
tartar per deliquium ; a strong effervescence will 
take place, and the iron, instead of falling to the 
bottom of the vessel, will afterward rise, so as to 
cover its sides, forming a multitude of ramifica- 
tions heaped one upon the other, which will some- 
times pass over the edge of the vessel, and extend 



APPENDIX. 77 

themselves on the outside, with all the appearance 
of a plant. If any of the liquor is spilled, it must 
be carefully collected and be again put into the 
vessel, where it will form new ramifications, which 
will contribute to increase the mass of the vegeta- 
tion. 

LI. Arhor Diance; or Tree of Diana. 

Most metals are capable of decomposing a 
nitric solution of silver. The separation of the 
metal by mercury, on account of the phenomena 
which it presents, was been called Diana's Tree, or 
Arbor Dianae. 

Dissolve one part of fine silver in weak nitric 
acid to saturation ; having diluted this solution 
with about twenty parts of distilled water, add 
two of mercury. 

Another method is to make an alloy of four 
parts of silver leaf and two parts of mercury ; to 
dissolve this alloy in a sufficient quantity of nitric 
acid, and to add to the solution distilled water. 

On putting into this liquor a small ball of soft 
alloy of silver, a precipitation of silver immedi- 
ately takes place. 

Another way again is to mix six parts of a 
solution of silver and four of a solution of mer- 
cury, both made with nitric acid, and completely 
saturated ; adding a little distilled water, and put- 
ting the mixture into a conical vessel, into which 
have been previously introduced six parts of an 
alloy consisting of seven parts of mercury and 
one of silver. 

7* 



/ 8 APPENDIX. 

At the end of some hours there will be formed, 
at the surface of the alloy, vegetation in the form 
of a bush. 

A process better than any of the former, is to 
dissolve three drams and 48 grains of pure silver, 
and half as much mercury, separately, in suffi- 
cient quantities of pure nitric acid ; mix the solu- 
tions, and add five or six ounces of distilled 
water : this must be poured upon seven drams 
and 12 grains of an amalgam of silver, previously 
put into a spherical vessel of glass, and having 
the consistence of butter. The vessel being kept 
undisturbed, in about 24 hours a very beautiful 
silver tree will be formed. 

Eemark. — In order to obtain a beautiful vege- 
tation, it is absolutely necessary that all the in- 
gredients be of the utmost purity : a cylindrical 
or conical glass vessel suits best. 

Ln. Precipitation of Sihcr hy Cojpfeft. 

^Spread with a cameFs hair pencil or feather, a 
few drops of a solution of silver in nitric acid, on 
a smooth piece of slate, or a plate of glass, place at 
the bottom in contact with the fluid, a copper or 
brass wire of about one-sixteenth of an inch in 
diameter, and let the whole remain undisturbed 
in a horizontal position. Under a glass magnifier, 
or microscope, appears a beautiful vegetation 

LIII. To make an jirtijicial Volcano, 
Take equal parts of pounded sulphur and iron 
filings, and after forming the whole into a paste 



AP1>ENDIX. T9 

with water, bury a certain quantity of the com- 
position, forty or fifty pounds for example, at about 
the depth of a foot below the surface of the earth. 
In ten or twelve hours, if the weather be warm^ 
the earth will swell up and burst, and flames will 
issue out, enlarging the aperture, and scattering 
around a yellow and blackish dust. 

It is not impossible that what is here seen in 
miniature, takes place on a grand scale in volca- 
noes ; as it is well known that they always furnish 
abundance of sulphur, and that the articles which 
they throw up abound in metallic particles 

LIY. Silver Figures on Silh, 

Write or draw any characters or figures on silk 
and ribbon, with a solution of nitrate of silver, 
then moisten the silk with a little water, and 
expose it to the action of hydrogen gas, the silver 
will be revived, afnd the figures will be fixed on 
the silk, and shine with great brilliancy. 



eHAFPER vni. 

SYMPATHEl'ic WKS, ma. 

LV. Yellow Ink. 

Write a note or letter, with a solution of muri- 
fJIfe oi Copper, and while odd the charactei^ 1?ill 



80 APPENDIX. 

be invisible; but on exposing tbe paper to the 
heat of the fire, the writing will appear of a yellow 
color. 

LVI. Blue Ink. 

Proceed in the same manner with acetate of co- 
balt, and the writing, on being exposed to the fire, 
will appear of a blue color. 

LVII. Green Inh. 

Write with a solution of muriate of cobalt, and^ 
when cold the writing will be invisible ; but on 
warming the paper the letters will be of a green 
color. 

LVIII. Silver Letters. 

If some lines be written with a solution of 
nitrate of silver, and then hold the paper over a 
vessel containing sulphate of ammonia, the letters 
will have the appearance of silver. 

LIX. Jet-Black Letters. 

If a letter be written with a solution of sulphate 
of iron, the writing will be invisible ; but on wash- 
ing it with a little decoction or infusion of gall-nuts, 
the letters will be of 2^ jet-black color. 

LX. Letters of a Bltbe Color. 
Proceed as in the last, but instead of the infu- 



APPENDIX. 81 

sion of galls, use prussiate of potash, and tlie letters 
will be of a blue color. 

LXI. To make a Landscape alternately repre- 
senting Winter and Summer, 

Form a landscape with common Indian ink, but 
paint the grass and leaves with muriate of cobalt; 
the picture will then represent a winter piece : on 
the application of gentle heat, the outline will be 
filled up, and the trees and flowers will assume 
their natural beauty and colors ] on the heat being 
removed, the flowers, &c. will vanish, and the land- 
scape resume its wintry appearance ; these changes 
may be frequently repeated, should the heat applied 
not be too great. 

LXn. Gilding. 

The application of gold, as a covering, may be 
performed by a metallic mixture, as a pigment ; 
by friction, as black-lead and colored chalks are 
used ; by the chemical precipitation of gold from 
mercury, or some other solvent ; or, lastly, by glu- 
ing, or fastening gold leaves to the surface intended 
to be gilt. 

LXni. Gilding of Brass or Copper, 

Fine instruments of brass, that their surface may 
be kept longer clean, may be gilt by steeping them 
several times in a solution of muriate of gold, in 
which there is not an excess of acid, and afterward 
burnishing them. 



82 APPENDIX. 

LXIV. An improved process for Gilding Steel. 

Pour into a solution of gold in nitro-muriatic 
acid^ about twice as much sulphuric ether : the 
iron or steel must be highly polished : the ether 
which has taken up the gold is then to be applied 
with a small brush : it evaporates, and the gold 
remains on the surface of the metal; in this 
manner all kind of figures may be delineated on 
steel, by a pen or fine brush ; lancets, razors, &c 
may be gilt in this way. 

LXV. Gilding Iron hy means of Heat. 

Is performed by cleaning and polishing its 
surface, and then heat it till it has acquired a blue 
color; the first layer of gold-leaf is then put on, 
slightly burnished down, and exposed to a gentle 
fire; it is usual to give three such layers, or four 
at the most, each consisting of a single leaf, for 
common works, or two for extraordinary : the 
heating is repeated at each layer, and finally the 
work is burnished. 

LXVI. Water- Gilding. 

' This term was probably at first confined to such 
processes as required a solution of gold in nitro- 
muriatic acid, and means a chemical application of 
gold to the surfaces of metals. A piece of polished 
steel will be gilt by being repeatedly steeped in a 
solution of gold copiously diluted with ardent 
.spirits. 



APPENDIX. 83 

LXVII. Gold Gilding h\j Frkiioa. 

Dip a fine linen rag in saturated solution of 
muriate of gold, till it has entirely imbibed the 
fluid ; the rag must then be dried over a fire, and 
burnt to tinder : the article to be gilt must be 
previously well burnished ] a piece of cork is then 
to be put, first into a solution of salt in water, and 
afterward into the black powder of the tinder, and 
the piece, after being rubbed with it, must be 
burnished. This powder is frequently used for 
gilding delicate articles of -silver. 

LXVIII. Shell-Gold or Gold-Poicder, 

For painting, may be obtained by uniting one 
part of gold with eight of mercury, and afterward 
evaporating the latter by heat, which leaves the 
gold as a powder : or the metal may be reduced 
to powder by mechanical trituration, 

LXIX. Grecian Gilding, 

Equal parts of muriate of ammonia and muriate 
of mercury are dissolved in nitric acid, and a 
solution of gold is made in this fluid : the solution 
is concentrated, and applied to the surface of sil- 
ver, which becomes quite black; but on being 
exposed to a red heat, it assumes the appearance 
of gilding. 



84 APPENDIX. 

DIRECTIONS TO MAKE 

COLORS FOR PAINTINCt ON VELVET. 

Bright Red. — Take one dram of carmine , 
and boil it two minutes^ with four table-spoonfuls 
of water; then add half an ounce of spirits of 
hartshorn and two spoonfuls of water: and the 
same in proportion to any quantity. 

Purple. — Take half a pound of Campeachy 
logwood chips, one ounce of alum boiled in a 
pint of water until it is reduced to half a pint, 
then mix with gum dragon. 

Fine Yellow. — ^Dissolve two drams of gam- 
boge powder in one ounce of spirits of wine, or 
put into a bottle one dram of saffron with a gill 
of water 

Yellow to mix with Blue, for mahing GtREEN. 
— Take one ounce of French berries bruised, 
half an ounce of alum boiled in six spoonfuls of 
water for five minutes, and mix with gum dragon. 

Orange. — Hay saffron mixed and dissolved in 
boiled water. 

Blue. — Prussian blue cake, or pink saucer 
rubbed up with lemon juice. 

Brown. — Burnt umber in cake, rubbed up 
with lemon juice. 



APPENDIX. ^ 85 

GrREEN. — Prussian blue^ rubbed up with the 
yellow of French berries, according to the tint 
you want. 

Gum Dragon. — To half an ounce of guni 
dragon, put one and a half pints of boiling water; 
let it stand four or five days, and shake it up fre- 
quently. 

Very Bright Red. — Pink saucers diluted 
with lemon juice. 



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